Journal of Environmental Biology

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2,6-and 3,5-dimethylaniline-induced mutagenesis in Chinese hamster ovary cells expressing human cytochrome P450 1A2 and sulfotransferase
(Triveni Enterprises, 2020-05) Kim, M.Y.
Aim: The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that human cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) and sulfotransferase (SULT) contribute to the phase I and II bioactivation of 2,6-dimethylaniline (2,6-DMA) and 3,5-dimethylaniline (3,5-DMA) in affecting the incidence of genotoxicity.Methodology: 5P3H1 cells carrying cytochrome P450 1A2 (CYP1A2) and SULT cells were treated with various concentrations of 2,6-and 3,5-DMA for 48 hr or their N-hydroxyl and aminophenol metabolites for 1 hr in the absence or presence of 2,6-Dichloro-4-nitrophenol (DCNP). Cell lethality was assayed by trypan blue exclusion and induced mutagenesis of adenine phosphoribosyl transferase (aprt) gene was also evaluated. Results: A significant dose-dependent increase in cytotoxicity and mutant fraction was observed after treatment with 2,6- and 3,5-DMA, and their metabolites; N-hydroxy and aminophenol metabolites are more potent than the parent compounds. Addition of sulfotransferase inhibitor DCNP decreased the cytotoxic and mutagenic effects of 2,6- and 3,5-DMA, and their metabolites in a dose-dependent manner. Interpretation: This research indicate that 2,6 and 3,5-DMA are mutagenic, and their toxicity in model systems depend on metabolic activation. This activation is mediated by CYP1A2 and SULT enzymes
The abundance and diversity of ammonia-oxidizing bacteria in activated sludge under autotrophic domestication.
(2013-04) Li, Qiang; Ma, Chao; Sun, Shifang; Xie, Hui; Zhang, Wei; Feng, Jun; Song, Cunjiang
Ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB) play a key role in nitrogen-removal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as they can transform ammonia into nitrite. AOB can be enriched in activated sludge through autotrophic domestication although they are difficult to be isolated. In this study, autotrophic domestication was carried out in a lab-scale sequencing-batch-reactor (SBR) system with two activated sludge samples. The ammonia removal capacity of the sludge samples increased during the domestication, and pH exhibited a negative correlation with the ammonia removal amount, which indicated that it was one important factor of microbial ammonia oxidation. The count of AOB, measured by the most probable number (MPN) method, increased significantly during autotrophic domestication as ammonia oxidation efficiency was enhanced. We investigated the changes in the community structure of AOB before and after domestication by amoA clone library and T-RFLP profile. It showed that AOB had been successfully enriched and the community structure significantly shifted during the domestication. Two groups of AOB were found in sludge samples: Nitrosomonas-like group remained predominant all the time and Nitrosospira-like group changed obviously. Simultaneously, the total heterotrophic bacteria were investigated by MPN and Biolog assay. The metabolic diversity of heterotrophs had changed minutely, although the count of them decreased significantly and lost superiority of microbial communities in the sludge.
Abundance and seasonal variations of phytoplankton in the creek waters of western mangrove of Kachchh-Gujarat.
(2008-03-04) Saravanakumar, A; Rajkumar, M; Thivakaran, G A; Serebiah, J Sesh
The phytoplankton was assessed quantitatively and qualitatively in regard to their abundance in creek waters at three sites along the western mangrove of Kachchh. In total one hundred and four species of phytoplankton were identified. Among them 82 species diatoms (Bacillariophyceae), 16 species dinoflagellates (Dinophyceae), 3 species blue greens (Cyanophyceae) and 2 species were green algae. The density in all the three sites varied from 94,166.67 to 2,44,500 cells l(-1). The salinity ranged from 36 to 44 per thousand, temperature 17 to 35 degrees C and pH ranged from 7 to 8.9 respectively. These semi arid zone mangrove creek area having high densities were recorded during monsoon and early winter season.
Accumulation and translocation of heavy metals in soil and plants from fly ash contaminated area.
(2010-07) Singh, Ramesh; Singh, D P; Kumar, Narendra; Bhargava, S K; Barman, S C
The present investigation deals with the accumulation of heavy metals in fields contaminated with fly ash from a thermal power plant and subsequent uptake in different parts of naturally grown plants. Results revealed that in the contaminated site, the mean level of all the metals (Cd, Zn, Cr, Pb, Cu, Ni, Mn and Fe) in soil and different parts (root and shoots) of plant species were found to be significantly (p<0.01) higher than the uncontaminated site. The enrichment factor (EF) of these metals in contaminated soil was found to be in the sequence of Cd (2.33) > Fe (1.88) > Ni (1.58) > Pb (1.42) > Zn (1.31) > Mn (1.27) > Cr (1.11) > Cu (1.10). Whereas, enrichment factor of metals in root and shoot parts, were found to be in the order of Cd (7.56) > Fe (4.75) > Zn (2.79) > Ni (2.22) > Cu (1.69) > Mn (1.53) > Pb (1.31) > Cr (1.02) and Cd (6.06) ~ Fe (6.06) > Zn (2.65) > Ni (2.57) > Mn (2.19) > Cu (1.58) > Pb (1.37) > Cr (1.01) respectively. In contaminated site, translocation factor (TF) of metals from root to shoot was found to be in the order of Mn (1.38) > Fe (1.27) > Pb (1.03) > Ni (0.94) > Zn (0.85) > Cd (0.82) > Cr (0.73) and that of the metals Cd with Cr, Cu, Mn, Fe; Cr with Pb, Mn, Fe and Pb with Fe were found to be significantly correlated. The present findings provide us a clue for the selection of plant species, which show natural resistance against toxic metals and are efficient metal accumulators.
Accumulation of chromium and interaction with other elements in Chlorella vulgaris (Cloroficeae) and Daphnia magna (Crustacea, Cladocera).
(2009-03) Regaldo, L; Gagneten, A M; Troiani, H
Assays with Chlorella vulgaris Beijerinck Novakova, 1890 and Daphnia magna Straus, 1820 were performed to determine Cr and other elements concentration in tissues of both species by instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA), after being exposed to 150, 280 and 350 .g l-1Cr (VI). Interaction among Cu, Zn, Fe and Cr were also registered. In the control of C. vulgaris, the amount of Cr was < 4μg g-1; in the treatments with Cr (VI) the values were 47, 82 and 100 folds greater than the control for the lowest, intermediate and highest concentrations tested respectively. In the control of D. magna, the amount of Cr was <3 μg g-1; in the treatments with Cr (VI) the values were 14, 13 and 27 folds higher than the control for the lower, intermediate and higher Cr (VI) concentrations respectively, and from 3 to 9 times less than for C. vulgaris These results show that C. vulgaris is very efficient accumulator of Cr (VI) from polluted waters, and in consequence, it is proposed to be used in phytoremediation procedures.
Accumulation of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn) in Raphanus sativus L. and Spinacia oleracea L. plants irrigated with industrial effluent.
(2006-05-18) Pandey, S N
Effluent from electroplating industry contains various heavy metals like Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn, which are used in electroplating process of industry. Effluent was slightly greenish in colour and pungent in odour. Physico-chemical properties like total suspended solids (TSS), total solids (TS), alkalinity, Biological oxygen demand (BOD), and Chemical oxygen demand (COD) showed higher values in effluent with high metal contents like Cd, 0.013; Cr, 0.093; Ni, 0.935 and Zn 4.76 mg l(-1). plants of S. oleracea and R. sativus were raised in uncontaminated alluvial soil of Lucknow by soil pot culture method and irrigated with industrial effluent, showed visual toxic symptoms like stunted growth, necrosis followed by chlorosis in leaves and finally death of the plants. Severity of toxicity was less in plants treated with diluted effluent (50%). High accumulation of Cr, 302.0; Cu, 81.2; Ni, 155.1 and Zn 146.8 microg g(-1) dry weight in S. oleracea and Cr, 198.0; Cu, 41.0; Ni, 84.3 and Zn, 140.2 microg g(-1) dry weight in R. sativus were determined. Tissue concentration of metals and toxic effects was more in S. oleracea plants. The tissue concentration of metals showed much higher values in treated plants than that of their respective control.
Accumulation of lead and copper in Rhizophora apiculata from Setiu mangrove forest, Terengganu, Malaysia.
(2009-09) Kamaruzzaman, B Y; Ong, M C; Jalal, K C A; Shahbudin, S; Nor, O Mohd
The accumulative partitioning of Pb and Cu in the Rhizophora apiculata was studied randomly in the Setiu mangrove forest, Terengganu. Samples of leaves, barks and roots were collected randomly from the selected studied species. Sediments between the roots of the sampled mangrove plants were also collected. The results from analysis for Rhizophora apiculata shows that the concentration of Pb and Cu were accumulated higher in root tissue compared to bark and leaf tissue but lower than surrounding sediment level. The average concentration of Cu for Rhizophora apiculata in leaf, bark, root and sediment was 2.73 , 3.94 , 5.21 and 9.42 mg l-1, respectively. Meanwhile, the average concentration of Pb in leaf, bark, root and sediment was 1.43 , 1.38 , 2.05 and 11.66 mg l-1, respectively. Results of concentration factors (CF) show that the overall the concentration of Pb and Cu were accumulated much higher in roots system of Rhizophora apiculata.
Accumulation of lead, cadmium and chromium in some plants cultivated along the bank of river Ribila at Odo-nla area of Ikorodu, Lagos state, Nigeria.
(2006-07-04) Akinola, M O; Ekiyoyo, T A
Heavy metal in soil samples and in washed and unwashed samples of Telfaria occidentalis (ugwu) and Talinum triangulare (waterleaf) cultivated on the bank of river Ribila in Odo-nla village were determined. The soil was moderately polluted with cadmium when compared with Federal Environmental Protection Agency standards. The difference between the unwashed and washed plant samples revealed that metal pollutants exist as superficial contaminants on the foliage surface which is the edible portion and if the foliage portion is washed thoroughly it may be safe for dietary consumption. There is no doubt that continuous discharge of effluent and gaseous emissions from the industries located in this area and dumping of domestic wastes into the river may lead to higher concentrations of these heavy metals in the soil and in the tissue of the leafy vegetables cultivated on the river bank over time. This can eventually lead to pollution of the soil and the cultivated plants, which are ready source of food for the people and other organisms in the food chain.
Accumulation of metals in selected macrophytes grown in mixture of drain water and tannery effluent and their phytoremediation potential.
(2012-09) Kumar, Narendra; Bauddh, Kuldeep; Dwivedi, Neetu; Barman, S C; Singh, D P
Phytoremediation is an emerging, ecofriendly and economically feasible technique for the restoration of heavy metals contaminated environment. In the present investigation, five native macrophytes growing naturally in a drain receiving tannery effluent viz Bacopa monnieri, Eichhornia crassipes, Hydrilla verticillata, Ipomoea aquatica and Marsilea minuta were evaluated for their heavy metal (Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb) accumulation potential in field conditions at Unnao, U.P., India. The results showed that metal accumulation by these macrophytes differed among species and tissue parts. The concentration of Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb in the root tissues were estimated in the range 3.38 -45.59, 1.01 -16.85, 1.81-4.43 and 1.02 -4.24 µg g-1 d.wt., whereas the corresponding shoot values were 8.79 -48.81, 1.01-8.67, 0.84 -2.89 and 1.02 -2.84 for Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb respectively. Among the studied plants the translocation factor (TF) ranged between 1.07-2.60, 0.75-3.83, 1.44-2.57 and 0.49-3.76 for Cr, Cu, Ni and Pb, respectively. The highest metal TF was found in M. minuta (2.60, 3.83 and 2.57) for Cr, Cu and Ni respectively, whereas Pb was best translocated (3.76) by B. monnieri. Roots and shoots of the studied macrophytes showed a value of greater than 1 for metal enrichment coefficient. Findings suggest that E. crassipes can be used for phytoremediation of Cu and Ni whereas M. minuta and H. verticillata can be applied for the removal of Cr and Pb respectively from the contaminated water bodies.
Accumulation of nutrient contents and biochemical changes in shallot, Allium ascalonicum grown in soil amended with CuO nanoparticle
(Triveni Enterprises, 2020-05) N., Priyanka; P., Venkatachalam
Aim: The aim of the current study was to investigate plants growth, physiological, biochemical and nutrients changes in shallot grown in soil loaded with CuO nanoparticle (CuONPs).Methodology: The shallot seedlings were treated with increasing doses (25, 50, 100, 200 mg kg-1) of CuONPs; the rate of seedling growth, plant biomass, photosynthetic pigment content level, antioxidant enzyme activities and nutrient elements were estimated and compared with the control. Results: CuONPs treated plants exhibited increased shoot and root growth (123.31% and 184.47%) and biomass compared to the control. Also, the level of photosynthetic pigments namely, chlorophyll a (277.24%), chlorophyll b (301.42%) and carotenoids (104.81%) increased in the CuONPs exposed plants. The activity of antioxidative enzymes viz. superoxide dismutase (SOD, 382.77-330.29%), peroxidase (POX, 197.51-166.86%) and catalase (CAT, 234-317.35%) were found to be significantly high in 100 mg NPs treated plants compared to others. Hence, the nutrient elements in 100mg NPs treated plants were estimated and found to be higher than control. Interpretation: Results indicate that the engineered phycomolecule loaded CuONPs may possibly be used as nanofertilizer to increase crop productivity and it can be used for enhancing growth of agricultural crops in the future
Accumulation, tolerance and impact of aluminium, copper and zinc on growth and nitrate reductase activity of Ceratophyllum demersum (Hornwort).
(2008-03-04) Umebese, C E; Motajo, A F
Ceratophyllum demersum (homwort) was subjected to toxic concentrations of Al (3 and 9 mg l(-1)), Zn (3 and 9 mg l(-1)) and Cu (2.5 and 7 mg l(-1)) in culture solutions for 15 days. The higher dose of Al enhanced the chlorophyll content significantly (p<0.05) in the first 6 days of treatment while other treatments caused marked reductions. Nitrate reductase activity (NRA) was significantly reduced (p<0.05) byAl, Cu and Zn toxicity and ceased completely in plants treated with Cu by the 6th day of treatment. Dry biomass and relative growth rate were reduced significantly (p<0.05) by metal treatment. Tolerance index of the plant was low for Cu (21.62 and 13.43% at low and high doses, respectively) and moderate for Zn (63.74 and 54.85%) and Al (72.83 and 68.79%). Accumulation ofAl, Zn and Cu was threefold at higher doses compared with the lower doses but the bioconcentration factors (BCF) were very low indicating that this plant is not a hyper accumulator of these metals.
Acid rain and its ecological consequences.
(2008-01-04) Singh, Anita; Agrawal, Madhoolika
Acidification of rain-water is identified as one of the most serious environmental problems of transboundary nature. Acid rain is mainly a mixture of sulphuric and nitric acids depending upon the relative quantities of oxides of sulphur and nitrogen emissions. Due to the interaction of these acids with other constituents of the atmosphere, protons are released causing increase in the soil acidity Lowering of soil pH mobilizes and leaches away nutrient cations and increases availability of toxic heavy metals. Such changes in the soil chemical characteristics reduce the soil fertility which ultimately causes the negative impact on growth and productivity of forest trees and crop plants. Acidification of water bodies causes large scale negative impact on aquatic organisms including fishes. Acidification has some indirect effects on human health also. Acid rain affects each and every components of ecosystem. Acid rain also damages man-made materials and structures. By reducing the emission of the precursors of acid rain and to some extent by liming, the problem of acidification of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem has been reduced during last two decades.
Active pharmaceutical ingredient (api) from an estuarine fungus, Microdochium nivale (Fr.).
(2011-09) Bhosale, S H; Patil, K B; Parameswaran, P S; Naik, C G; Jagtap, T G
Various marine habitats sustain variety of bio-sources of ecological and biotech potentials. Pharmaceutical potential compound Cyclosporine A was reported from marine fungus Microdochium nivale associated with Porteresia coarctata, a marine salt marsh grass from mangrove environment distributed along the Central West Coast (CWC) of India. This study involves association of M. nivale with P. coarctata plant, fermentation conditions, purification of Cyclosporine A, chemical characterization etc. Its antifungal inhibition and MIC (Minimum inhibitory concentration) against Aspergillus strains (A. niger, A. japonicus, A. fresenii), yeasts and dermatophytes (Candida sp., Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, T. tonsurans, T. violaceum, Microsporium gypsum and Fusarium sp.) were evaluated. However, the MIC against A. japonicus, C. neoformans, Candida sp. and T. tonsurans were confirmed to be as low as 12.5-25 mg disc-1. The antifungal properties of Cyclosporine A against Aspergillus species, yeast and dermatophytes revealed that Cyclosporine A would be a potential compound for life threatening diseases caused by above fungi in both human and animals. Furthermore, we have reported herewith another source of Cyclosporin A derived from filamentous fungus, M. nivale. occurring in marine environment.
Activity of phosphatases in the hemocytes of estuarine edible mudcrab, Scylla serrata exposed to arsenic.
(2009-09) Saha, Sanjib; Ray, Mitali; Ray, Sajal
Sundarbans biosphere reserve is an ecologically important area of West Bengal, which supports a wide variety of estuarine species including Scylla serrata estuarine mudcrab of economic value. In this present study, activity of phosphatases (acid and alkaline) of hemocytes was estimated under the sublethal exposure of arsenic in controlled static water environment for 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 and 15 days of exposure. Exposure to 3 ppm of sodium arsenite for 15 days, resulted a maximum inhibition of activity of acid phosphatase (ACP) as 0.016 .M mg-1 protein min-1 with intermediate activity in different spans of exposure against the control value of 1.83 .M mg-1 protein min-1. Similar mode of maximum inhibition of activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was recorded as 0.008 .M mg-1 protein min-1, when the crabs were exposed to 3 ppm of sodium arsenite for 15 days against the control value of 0.694 .M mg-1 protein min-1. Exposure to 1 ppm of sodium arsenite caused inhibition of activity of ACP which ranged from 1.76 to 0.70 .M mg-1 protein min-1. For 2 and 3 ppm of exposure activity of ACP ranged from 1.12 to 0.42 and 0.67 to 0.016 .M mg-1 protein min-1 respectively. For the activity of ALP exposure to 2 and 3 ppm of sodium arsenite yielded an inhibition of activity which ranged from 0.472 to 0.279 and 0.275 to 0.008 .M mg-1 protein min-1 respectively. Arsenic exposure resulted a dose dependent decrease in the activities of both of the phosphatases and may be considered as a suitable biomarker of aquatic pollution in Sundarbans mangrove.
Acute and chronic toxicity of copper on aquatic insect Chironomus ramosus from Assam, India.
(2012-01) Majumdar, T N; Gupta, A
Acute toxicity of copper (Cu) on Chironomus ramosus was determined by exposing third-instar larvae to graded concentrations of copper sulphate (CuSO4. 5H2O). Median lethal concentrations (LC50) of Cu as CuSO4 at 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr were determined as 3280, 1073.33, 780, and 183 μg l-1, respectively. For determining the effects of chronic toxicity, small first-instar larvae were individually exposed to sublethal concentrations of copper sulphate (1.0-18.0 μg l-1) for a period of 21 days. Discoloration and thinning of body were detected at 1 μg l-1 and ventilation movements, pupation and adult emergence were significantly affected at 1.8 μg l-1. At 10 μg l-1 CuSO 4 concentration, growth and tube-building activities of the larva were significantly different from the control.
Acute effects of mercuric chloride on glycogen and protein content of Zebra fish, Danio rerio.
(2013-03) Vutukuru, S S; Basani, Kalpana
Presence of mercury and other heavy metals above permissible levels in water bodies across the globe is posing a serious threat to aquatic biota and public health. Occurrence of mercury above the permissible limits in the aquatic ecosystem of Hyderabad city is well established. In this context, we carried out static- renewal bioassays on the zebra fish, Danio rerio exposed to different concentrations of mercuric chloride, and the 96-h median lethal concentration (LC50) was found to be 0.077 mgl-1. Behavioral manifestations like loss of scales, hyper secretion of mucus, surfacing and darting movements, loss of balance, irregular swimming patterns were noticed in the fish exposed to 0.077 mgl-1. The present study also examined the toxic effects of mercuric chloride on vital biochemical constituent’s total glycogen and total protein. Significant decrease (p<0.001) in glycogen and protein content of fish exposed to 0.077 mgl-1
Acute toxicity and induced weight changes in laboratory tests with Mn and Cu against Tilapia guineensis (Dumeril) and Tympanotonus fuscatus (Linne).
(2006-05-18) Oyewo, E O; Don-Pedro, K N
The acute toxicity of Mn and Cu against Tilapia guineensis and Tympanotonus fuscatus and the sub-lethal effects of the metals on weight changes were investigated in laboratory experiments employing standard bioassay techniques. Based on 96 hr LC50 values, copper was more toxic than manganese to either test animal by several orders of magnitude. Against either test metal, T. guineensis was remarkably more susceptible than T. fuscatus. At sub-lethal concentrations, particularly the two highest concentrations tested (0.016 and 0.03 mg Cu L(-1), 23.0 and 46.0 mg Mn I(-1)), both metals adversely affected the test species by bringing about reduced weight gains or weight loss in exposed animals compared to untreated controls at the end of the test periods. The implications of these findings for ecosystem viability and management are discussed.
Acute toxicity bioassay of dimethoate on freshwater airbreathing catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch).
(2009-05) Pandey, Rakesh K; Singh, Ram N; Singh, Sarika; Singh, Narendra N; Das, Vijai K
Pesticides are chemicals used for pest control in the agricultural fields. They finally reach the surrounding water bodies through surface runoff affecting the aquatic fauna. Dimethoate is frequently used organophosphate pesticide due to its high effectiveness and rapid breakdown into environmentally safe products. A 96 hr static acute toxicity test was carried out to determine the LC50 value of dimethoate, on the freshwater airbreathing catfish Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch). The fish were exposed to 7 different concentrations of dimethoate (2.50, 2.75, 3.00, 3.25, 3.50, 3.75 and 4.00 mg l-1) for toxicity bioassay. Control (0.00 mg l-1) was also carried out. The data were subjected to Finney’s Probit analysis and processed with Trimmed Spearman-Karber statistical software. The LC50 values for dimethoate for 24, 48, 72 and 96 hr were 3.38, 3.23, 3.08 and 2.98 mg l-1, respectively. At higher concentration of dimethoate (3.25 mg l-1 and above) the fish showed uncoordinated behaviour such as erratic and jerky swimming, attempt to jump out of water, frequent surfacing and gulping of air, decrease in opercular movement and copious secretion of mucus all over the body.
Acute toxicity effect of the venom of the marine snail, Conus zeylanicus.
(2007-10-15) Annadurai, D; Kasinathan, R; Lyla, P S
Acute toxicity of the venom of Conus zeylanicus was studied to evaluate its risk and toxic factors in view of human safety The lethality of the crude venom (LD50 -60 mg/kg via i.p.) in mice was associated with increased heart rate and strong muscular hind limb paralysis, skeletal muscle paralysis, dyspnea, loss of spontaneous activity followed by respiratory failure. The effect on vital tissues revealed liver tissues were disrupted with hemorrhagic necrosis and the lung showed the pathogenic changes of diffused inflammation of the parenchyma and obliteration of the alveolar space. In brain, edema was observed throughout the parenchyma and the kidney shows the tubules with cloudyswelling of the lining cells and the parenchyma inflammation and few inflammatory cells infiltration.
Acute toxicity evaluation of copper, arsenic and HCH to paddy field crab, Paratelphusa hydrodromus (Herb.).
(2002-10-04) Vardhanan, Y Shibu; Radhakrishnan, Tresa
Routine static tests were conducted for determining the median lethal tolerance limit of paddy field crab, Paratelphusa hydrodromus exposed to Copper, Arsenic and HCH at different time intervals of 24, 48, 72 and 96 hour. The LC50 values for Copper came to be 28.00, 22.00, 18.20 and 15.70 ppm; Arsenic 136.00, 128.00, 121.500 and 114.00 ppm and HCH 10.00, 8.80, 7.00 and 6.00 ppm, respectively. The safe concentration, application factor and safe application rate were also calculated. They were for, Copper: 5.56, 1.59 and 3.26 ppm, Arsenic: 38.53, 11.40 and 76.00 and HCH : 4.07, 0.06 and 1.28 ppm. Animals exposed to different concentrations of test chemicals (Copper, Arsenic and HCH) showed prominent behavioural/morphological alterations viz., coughing, redness on the ventral side, paralysis and disorientation in scaphognathite activity. Animals exposed to high concentrations showed an avoidance behaviour by keeping away from the direct contact with the toxic solution either by climbing on the wall of aquarium or by mounting over the weak individual and forming a type of pyramid.

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