Journal of Vector Borne Diseases

Permanent URI for this collection

https://imsear.searo.who.int/handle/123456789/117867

Browse

Now showing 1 - 20 of 470

Abandoned boats contribute to spread of Aedes and Culex vector mosquitoes in coastal belt, Galle District, Southern Sri Lanka
(Wolters Kluwer – Medknow, 2022-07) Dissanayake, Dinithi Shamalee; Wijekoon, Chandana Dammika; Wegiriya, Hemantha
Background & objectives: Although, the number of considerable cases of dengue and lymphatic filariasis have been reported from Galle District, Sri Lanka in the past several years, contribution of abandoned boats to spread vector mosquitoes of Aedes and Culex in the coast is not well studied. Our aim was to assess the positive composition of different types of abandoned boats by larval vector mosquitoes to investigate their occurrence and habitat preference, and the monsoonal and co-existence variation of Aedes mosquitoes. Methods: The 4th instar larvae of Aedes and Culex species from three different abandoned boat types in nine subsampling sites at three municipal areas in Galle District were collected during 2017–2019. In total, 15 sampling rounds were conducted in each site for three years duration as five sample rounds per year. Larval collections and identifications were carried out using standard techniques and identification keys according to WHO guidelines. The occurrence of mosquito larvae was analysed by boat type, locations within area and year. Further, the average infestation variation of Aedes mosquitoes were compared with monsoonal and co-existence changers. Results: Out of the total abandoned boats, majority (51%) were engine boats and, 32.7%, 16.35% were troller boats and canoe boats, respectively. Troller boats were highly infested boat type for vector mosquitoes. Aedes albopictus was the dominant vector in abandoned boats other than recorded Ae. aegypti and Culex quinquefasciatus. Culex quinquefasciatus showed comparatively low infestation percentages. The average infestation of Ae. albopictus showed a consistent pattern with monsoon variation. A competitive rapid invasion of Aedes aegypti was observed with the suppressing Ae. albopictus in abandoned boats after 2018. Interpretation & conclusion: Abandoned boats contribute noteworthy to spread of Aedes and Culex vector mosquitoes in coastal belt, Galle District. These study findings would be helpful for researchers and health authorities to design appropriate vector control measures and to mitigate future dengue and filariasis outbreaks
Abnormal findings on dipstick urinalysis of out-patient with malaria in Abakaliki, Nigeria.
(2011-12) Ugwuja, E I; Ugwa, N C
Background & objectives: Malaria, one of the major health challenges of the tropics affecting about 500 million people, particularly the children and pregnant women have been associated with changes in urine compositions. The present study was undertaken to document the urinary abnormalities in malaria patients based on malaria species and the level of malaria parasitaemia. Methods: Febrile patients (n = 365) with positive Giemsa-stained blood films for malaria recruited from Outpatient Department of Ebonyi State University Teaching Hospital, Abakaliki participated in the study. Patients were classified into two categories (+ and ++) based on parasite density. Apparently healthy individuals (n = 81), without malaria parasite on both thick and thin films of comparable age and gender acted as control group. Urine sample (10 ml) was collected from each participant and analysed using standard laboratory methods and techniques. Results: Seventy-four (20.3%) of the patients had Plasmodium falciparum malaria. Although all the urine parameters were higher in the malarial patients in comparison to the control, only bilirubinuria and urobilinogenuria were statistically significant (p <0.05). Also, bilirubinuria, urobilinogenuria, haematuria and proteinuria were significantly (p <0.05) higher in P. falciparum infection than in infections with other malaria species, but only in P. falciparum infection, bilirubinuria and urobilinogenuria were significantly (p <0.05) higher at higher parasitaemia. Conclusion: Even though positive blood film for malaria parasite remains the gold standard for the diagnosis of malaria, urinary abnormalities, such as bilirubinuria, urobilinogenuria, proteinuria and haematuria may aid in identifying patients with severe malaria parasitaemia, especially the falciparum malaria.
ABO blood groups and malaria related clinical outcome.
(2011-03) Deepa; Alwar, Vanamala A; Rameshkumar, Karuna; Ross, Cecil
Objectives: The study was undertaken to correlate the blood groups and clinical presentations in malaria patients and to understand the differential host susceptibility in malaria. Methods: From October 2007 to September 2008, malaria positive patients’ samples were evaluated in this study. Hemoglobin, total leukocyte count, and platelet count of each patient were done on an automated cell counter. After determining the blood groups, malarial species and the severity of clinical course were correlated. Results: A total of 100 patients were included in the study, of which 63 cases were positive for Plasmodium falciparum and 37 cases were positive for P. vivax infection and 11 patients had mixed infection. The results of the blood groups showed 22 – ‘A’ group, 42 – ‘B’ group, 35 – ‘O’ group and 1 was ‘AB’ group. When the clinical courses between different groups were compared using the following parameters for severe infection—a parasitic load of >10/1000 RBCs, severe anemia with hemoglobin < 6 g%, platelet count of <10,000/mm3, hepato or splenomegaly or clinical signs of severe malaria such as fever >101oF and other organ involvement, it was observed that ‘O’ group had an advantage over other the groups. The difference in rosetting ability between red blood cells of different ‘ABO’ blood groups with a diminished rosetting potential in blood group ‘O’ red blood cells was due to the differential host susceptibility. Conclusion: ‘O’ group had an advantage over the other three blood groups. Based on literature and the results of this study, the diminished rosetting potential in blood group ‘O’ red blood cells is suggested as the basis for the differential host susceptibility.
Acalculous cholecystitis by P. falciparum in a 3-year-old child.
(2008-03-11) Kumar, Arvind; Taksande, Amar M; Vilhekar, K Y
Active case detection survey of malaria cases in Surat City: a field based study.
(2005-06-16) Matta, Shanker; Kantharia, S L; Desai, V K
Acute attack of AIP (acute intermittent porphyria) with severe vivax malaria associated with convulsions: a case report.
(2009-12) Kochar, Sanjay K; Mahajan, Manish; Gupta, Rajendra P; Middha, Sheetal; Acharya, Jyoti; Kochar, Abhishek; Das, Ashis; Kochar, Dhanpat K
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis after treatment of Plasmodium vivax malaria.
(2012-06) Goyal, Jagdish P; Shah, Vijay B; Parmar, Sejal
Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and dengue fever: Comment.
(2012-03) Zaki, Syed Ahmed
Acute lung injury and acute respiratory distress syndrome in malaria.
(2008-09-24) Mohan, Alladi; Sharma, Surendra K; Bollineni, Srinivas
Malaria is an important treatable cause of acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in the tropics and in the returning traveller in the non-endemic areas. ARDS is an important complication in severe, complicated falciparum malaria and has been described in P. vivax and P. ovale malaria also. Malarial ALI/ARDS is more common in adults than in children. Pregnant women and non-immune individuals are more prone to develop this condition. Increased alveolar capillary permeability resulting in intravascular fluid loss into the lungs appears to be the key pathophysiologic mechanism. In malaria, ARDS can develop either at initial presentation or after initiation of treatment when the parasitaemia is falling and the patient is improving. Patients present with acute onset dysnoea that can rapidly progress to respiratory failure. The diagnosis of malaria is confirmed by slide microscopy supported by the use of rapid antigen tests. Patients with malarial ARDS should be managed in an intensive care unit. Careful attention must be paid to haemodynamic stabilisation and optimising fluid balance. Currently, specific treatment choices for malaria include parenteral artemisinins or intravenous quinine along with doxycycline. Respiratory failure requires endotracheal intubation and assisted mechanical ventilation. Co-existent bacterial sepsis is frequently present in patients with malarial ARDS eventhough an obvious focus may not be evident. Appropriate broad spectrum antibiotic therapy must be started when there is a clinical suspicion after procuring the microbiological specimens. ARDS in malaria is a disease with a high mortality. Early diagnosis, institution of specific antimalarial treatment and assisted ventilation can be life-saving.
Administration of L-citrulline prevents Plasmodium growth by inhibiting/ modulating T-regulatory cells during malaria pathogenesis
(Wolters Kluwer – Medknow, 2022-01) Awasthi, Vikky; Chauhan, Rubika; Das, Jyoti
Background & objectives: Malaria affects around 228 million people all over the globe. Malaria causing parasite Plasmodium infection leads to activation of immune responses. The growth of parasite and immune activation requires semi essential amino acids like L-arginine. Malaria infection leads to condition of hyperargininemia and low availability of nitric oxide. However, the effect of L-arginine supplementation in malaria infected mice has not been explored in in-vivo studies. In this study we have compared the effect of oral supplementation of nitric oxide donor, L-arginine and L-citrulline, in malaria infected mice Methods: To examine the effect of oral supplementation of L-arginine and L-citrulline, Plasmodium berghei infected mice were divided in different groups and respective groups were fed with L- arginine and L-citrulline, parasitemia was measured on different days. Mice was sacrificed and immunophenotyping was done on 10 days post infection. Results: our results show that supplementation of L-arginine induces conducive environment for Plasmodium growth due to which the infected mice dies earlier than control wild type infected mice whereas L-citrulline supplementation inhibits parasite growth and mice survives for longer period of time. Flow cytometric analysis shows that supplementation of L-arginine increases cTLA-4 on T cell population, increases Treg cells leading to immunosuppression while supplementation of L-citrulline does not have effect on T cells population and number of Treg cell decrease compared to P. berghei infected mice. Interpretation & conclusion: our results show that L-citrulline can be a better alternative than L-arginine because of lower expression of inhibitory molecules and lower parasitemia as well as increased survival of infected mice.
Age as a risk factor for thrombocytopenia and anaemia in children treated for acute uncomplicated falciparum malaria.
(2007-12-21) Adedapo, Aduragbenro D; Falade, Catherine O; Kotila, Rachel T; Ademowo, George O
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Anaemia is commonly observed in children with malaria, but reports on leucocyte and platelet count abnormalities associated with malaria are inconsistent. This study examined the effect of age, gender, parasite density and temperature on haematological parameters in children with acute uncomplicated malaria. METHODS: Haematological parameters were determined in children with acute uncomplicated malaria, and these were correlated with age, sex, temperature and parasite density. Statistical analysis was done using SAS 9.1. RESULTS: Six hundred and ninety five children with acute uncomplicated malaria participated in the study. The mean age was 51.7 months +/- 33.8. At presentation, anaemia occurred in 43.8% of the patients and children <5 yr had a significantly lower haematocrit (28.4% +/- 4.8) than that of older children (32.8% +/- 4.8) (p <0.001), but the haematocrit was not significantly different by days 14 and 28. There was no difference between both sexes. Leucocytosis was more frequently seen than leucopenia (9.5% vs 3%). Thrombocytopenia was found in 59.3% of enrolled patients. More than half of the patients with thrombocytopenia had recovered by Day 28. Baseline platelet count was related to Day 14 (r = 0.6, p < 0.0001) and Day 28 (r = 0.2, p = 0.0015) and the haematocrit on Day 28 (r = 0.12, p = 0.00197). Platelet count showed no correlation with temperature, parasite density and leucocyte count. Haematocrit correlated with age (r = 0.4, p < 0.0001); but not with parasite density or temperature. Leucocyte count showed no correlation with age or parasite density. CONCLUSION: While thrombocytopenia was the most common haematological finding and may be of diagnostic importance, anaemia and leucocytosis were more common in the under fives.
Alpha 2 macroglobulin activity in rats infected with Typanosoma lewisi and treated with cyclophosphamide and its effect on the malignancy of the disease.
(2007-06-29) Budovsky, A; Sneir, R; Bazarsky, E; El-On, J
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Trypanosoma lewisi is a common, flagellated parasite of the rat. Our previous study showed that rabbits injected with serum collected from rats infected with Trypanosoma lewisi and treated with cyclophosphamide (CyI) produced high levels of antibodies against a new protein in the CyI rat serum. RESULTS: In the present study, this protein was characterised as alpha2 macroglobulin (alpha2M) and the kinetics of its production and its influence on the malignancy of the disease were determined. In rats infected with T. lewisi, alpha2M was first demonstrated and peaked on the second day post-infection (972 microg/ml) and then reduced gradually, reaching a level of 32 microg/ml on the eighth day post-infection. However, in the CyI rats the level of alpha2M was gradually increased as the disease progressed, reaching a level of 890 microg/ml on the eighth day post-infection. Injection of both crude and purified alpha2M into rats infected with T. lewisi led to increased parasitaemia. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The present study suggests that increased levels of alpha2M in the CyI rats contribute to the malignancy of the disease.
Altitudinal distribution of mosquitoes in mountainous area of Garhwal region: Part-I.
(2004-03-31) Devi, N Pemola; Jauhari, R K
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Mosquito fauna diversity in mountainous areas of Garhwal region was studied during November 2000 to October 2002 to correlate the altitudinal vegetation and distribution of mosquitoes. METHODS: Adult mosquitoes and mosquito immatures were collected using WHO methods and identified using standard keys and catalogues. Altitude of mosquito habitat was measured using portable altimeter and also by GPS. RESULTS: Altogether 34 species in five genera--Aedes, Anopheles, Armigeres, Culex and Uranotaenia were encountered in the present study in the altitude range of 300 to 2000 m. Majority of the mosquitoes were found in between 300 to 900 m altitude except Culex vagus and Anopheles maculatus, which were found throughout the range. INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: The mosquitoes were categorised into six groups based on their altitudinal distribution. The areas at lowest elevation were having the greatest number of species but not the corresponding greater number of specimens in the present study.
Amplification of LDH gene from indian strains of Plasmodium vivax.
(2006-09-10) Berwal, Ritu; Gopalan, N; Chandel, Kshitij; Prakash, Shri; Sekhar, K
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES: Plasmodium vivax is geographically widespread and responsible for > 50% of malaria cases in India. Increased drug resistance of the parasite highlights the immediate requirement of early and accurate diagnosis as well as new therapeutics. In view of this, the present study was undertaken to amplify P. vivax (Indian strains) lactate dehydrogenase gene (PvLDH) which has been identified as a good target for antimalarials as well as diagnostics. METHODS: P. vivax infected clinical blood samples were collected from southern part of India and were tested with established diagnostic parameters (ICT, Giemsa staining). Total DNA was extracted from blood samples and subjected to PCR using two sets of primers, one for the amplification of full PvLDH gene (951 bp) and the other for a partial PvLDH gene fragment (422bp), covering a variable antigenic region (140aa) as compared to other plasmodial species. RESULTS & CONCLUSION: PCRs for both the full and partial gene targets were optimised and found to be consistent when tested on several P. vivax positive clinical samples. In addition, full gene PCR was found to specifically detect only P. vivax DNA and could be used as a specific molecular diagnostic tool. These amplified products can be cloned and expressed as a recombinant protein that might be useful for the development and screening of antimalarials as well as for diagnostic purposes.
An analytical review of vector- and pathogen-based transmission-blocking vaccine for malaria control
(Wolters Kluwer – Medknow, 2022-01) Jakhar, Renu; Sehrawat, Neelam; Gakhar, S. K.
Malaria is a vector borne disease, considered to be one of the most serious public health problems. The present review focused on the blocking of parasite development in mosquito vectors; one broad strategy for achieving this is Transmission Blocking Vaccines (TBV). The TBVs usually rely on immunization of vertebrate hosts with molecules derived from the vector or pathogen to reduce pathogen transmission from infected to uninfected hosts. Most of the studies on the TBVs are based on the antibodies targeted against the surface antigens of sexual stages of malaria parasite, but it is meagre to develop mosquito-based vaccine in this regard. Vector-based TBVs include surface proteins that are expressed by the mosquito midgut digestive enzymes which are induced upon blood-feeding, and receptors expressed on the epithelial line of the tissue. Many proteins are reported that can act as candidates for transmission-blocking vaccines. This review aims to summarize the vector midgut-based proteins identified till date, that can block the development and maturity of sexual stages of the parasite within mosquitoes as targets for transmission-blocking vaccine development. The TBVs intervention can block transmission of different malaria parasite species in various species of mosquitoes with future application perspective worldwide.
Anopheles gambiae s.s. breeding in polluted water bodies in urban Lagos, southwestern Nigeria.
(2007-12-21) Awolola, T S; Oduola, A O; Obansa, J B; Chukwurar, N J; Unyimadu, J P
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVE: Urban malaria is on the rise in Nigeria due to rapid industrialisation and developmental activities. A study was undertaken in Lagos, Nigeria to study the Anopheles breeding in polluted water bodies. METHODS: Anopheles larval breeding habitats were surveyed and water samples from 24 larval breeding sites from four strategic areas in urban Lagos were analysed. The relationship between eight abiotic variables (pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, hardness, nitrate, total dissolved solids, turbidity and oil) and density of Anopheles larvae were investigated. The levels of heavy metals (Zn, Co, Cu, Pb, Mn, Fe, Hg and Ni) pollution were analysed by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. RESULTS: Morphological and PCR analysis of 2358 anopheline larvae revealed only the presence of two members of the Anopheles gambiae complex consisting of 93.1% Anopheles gambiae s.s. and 6.9% An. arabiensis. Multiple regression analysis revealed a significant association between occurrence of An. arabiensis larvae and two independent variables: pH and turbidity but not for An. gambiae s.s. The levels of three heavy metals: Fe, Cu and Pb from more than half of the sites surveyed were three times higher than the values obtained in natural breeding sites of An. gambiae s.s. from a rural area of Lagos. Over 85% of An. gambiae s.s. larvae were found in water bodies characterised by low dissolved oxygen (<3 mg/L), high conductivity (>900 uS/cm), turbidity (>180 FAU), oil (>11 mg/L) and heavy metals: Fe, Cu, and Pb (>0.4 mg/L). INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION: These results indicate that An. gambiae s.s. is adapting to a wide range of water pollution in this urban area. The survival of the mosquito in widespread polluted water bodies across Lagos metropolis could be responsible for the rise in the incidence of malaria.
Antagonistic antimalarial properties of pawpaw leaf aqueous extract in combination with artesunic acid in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice.
(2011-06) Onaku, L O; Attama, A A; Okore, V C; Tijani, A Y; Ngene, A A; Esimone, C O
Background & objectives: Artemisinins, the main stay in the treatment of malaria are used in combinations with other antimalarials to forestall resistance, as artemisinin-combination therapies (ACTs). However, ACTs are expensive and some of the non-artemisinin components are not well-tolerated by patients. There are several folkloric and scientific proofs of the efficacy of herbal remedies for malaria. Mature leaves of Carica papaya is widely used to treat malaria in several African countries. An ACT involving a medicinal herb extract or its active constituent(s) will provide an indigenous alternative/herbal ACT. Methods: Mature fresh leaves of Carica papaya were grounded and macerated in cold distilled water for 24 h and the extract (PCE) was stored in the refrigerator for seven days. Fresh extracts were made as needed. The antiplasmodial activity of PCE and/or artesunic acid were determined by using the Peter’s 4-day suppressive test in Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. The ED50 and ED90 were calculated from the dose-response relationships. Results: The combination of 50 mg/kg of PCE and 15 mg/kg of artesunic acid produced a significant reduction of parasitemia (81.25%), compared to 50 mg/kg PCE alone (37.7%). The mean survival time of the combinations of PCE and 15 mg/kg of artesunic acid, and PCE alone followed a dose-dependent manner. The ED50 of PCE showed that it has a very good activity. The isobolar equivalent (IE) calculated from the ED90 of PCE in combination with artesunic acid showed that the interaction was antagonistic. Interpretation & conclusion: Although pawpaw alone was found to have a very good activity, its combination with artesunic acid is antagonistic. Combinations of artemisinins and pawpaw show little promise for combination therapy development.
Antibodies raised against hemolymph of Anopheles culicifacies reduce the fecundity and malaria parasite development.
(2009-12) Kumari, Amrita; Gakhar, S K; Hooda, Vikas
Background & objectives: Several studies have been made to study the effect of antisera raised against different tissues (hemolymh, ovary, midgut and salivary glands) on the fecundity and malaria parasite development in the different species of mosquitoes but there are no reports on the antisera raised against the hemolymph of Anopheles culicifacies, the principal malaria vector in India accounting for 65% of malaria cases. Hence, an attempt was made to study the same and evaluate its impact on malaria parasite development. Methods: Polyclonal and multifactorial antibodies were produced in rabbits against heterogenous mixture of hemolymph proteins. Antibodies against hemolymph proteins were screened for their potential to influence reproductive performance of mosquitoes. Antibody titer in rabbit serum was determined by ELISA and putative candidate antigens were identified in the hemolymph of An. culicifacies by western blotting. Cross reactivity amongst various tissues vis-a-vis hemolymph protein was also identified. In addition, a significant reduction in oocyst development was also observed in An. culicifacies mosquitoes that ingested antihemolymph antibodies along with Plasmodium vivax. Results: The maximum reduction in fecundity (57%) was observed during fourth week, after the last booster and number of oocyts per infected mosquito reduced by 73.35% in the group of mosquitoes that ingested antihemolymph antibodies along with the infected blood meal respectively. However, the ingestion of antibodies against hemolymph proteins did not have significant influence on hatchability. Antisera raised against hemolymph proteins of An. culicifacies recognized 11 polypeptides by western blotting. Interpretation & conclusion: During the present study, 11 putative candidate antigens were identified in the hemolymph of An. culicifacies, against which antibodies produced significantly reduced the fecundity by 57%. In addition, a significant reduction in oocyst development was also observed in An. culicifacies that ingested antihemolymph antibodies along with P.vivax.
Antimalarial potential of Nosode 30 and 200 against Plasmodium berghei infection in BALB/c mice.
(2012-06) Bagai, U; Rajan, A; Kaur, S
Background & objectives: Homeopathy is considered as an emerging area of alternative medicine which could be established for the global health care. One of the greatest objections to this science lies in its inability to explain the mechanism of action of the micro doses based on scientific experiments and proofs. The present study has been undertaken to screen in vivo antimalarial activity of Malaria Co Nosode 30 and Nosode 200 against Plasmodium berghei infection in BALB/c mice. Methods: Peter’s 4-day test was used to evaluate the in vivo schizontocidal effect of Nosode 30 and Nosode 200. One month follow-up study was done to calculate the mean survival time of mice in each group. Biochemical analysis was carried out to assess the liver and kidney function tests using diagnostic kits. Results: Nosode 30 and 200 exhibited 87.02 and 37.97% chemosuppression on Day 7 and mean survival time (MST) of 18.5 ± 2.16 and 16.5 ± 1.37 days respectively, which were extremely statistically significant when compared to MST of infected control (8.55 ± 0.83 days). The safety of Nosode 30 was also confirmed by the comparable levels of ALP, SGOT, SGPT activities, concentration of bilirubin, urea and creatinine to CQ treated group. Conclusion: Nosode 30 possesses considerable in vivo antiplasmodial activity against P. berghei infection as compared to Nosode 200 as evident from the chemosuppression obtained using Peter’s 4-day test. Further, studies on the drug can be carried out to establish its antimalarial potential in monotherapy or in combination with other homeopathic drug formulations.
Application of predictive degree day model for field development of sandfly vectors of visceral leishmaniasis in northwest of Iran.
(2009-12) Oshaghi, M A; Ravasan, N Maleki; Javadian, E; Rassi, Y; Sadraei, J; Enayati, A A; Vatandoost, H; Zare, Z; Emami, S N
Background & objectives: Temperature plays a significant role in insect’s development where a rise in temperature, accelerates the insect’s metabolic rates, increases egg production and makes blood feeding more frequent. It also shortens the time period required for the development of pathogens within insects. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) is one of the most important vector-borne diseases transmitted by different sandfly species. In this study, a phenological model was used to estimate the number of generations, peak activity and temporal variability of sandflies in the main VL foci in northwest Iran. Methods: Development requirements of different life stages of a Phlebotomus papatasi laboratory colony were measured and were subjected to the formula for calculation of accumulated degree day (ADD) for field sandflies using the online soft (UC IPM), using horizontal cut-off method and single triangle model. Sandflies population dynamics was monitored in the field during the seasonal activity in the region and its association with the ADD was tested using SAS software. Results: Populations of sandflies accommodated well with the amount of accumulated degree days (ADD) in the region. During the seasonal activity, a total of 639 ADD were produced which was enough to support one complete life cycle and growth of the next generation up to late larval instar. Larvae of the second generation hibernate through winter and the first adult population appears in the mid to late June of the next year when they receive at least 182 ADD from the beginning of the spring. The highest population density of sandflies was observed in early August, followed by a rapid decrease in early September, with the adult population disappearing completely in late September. This is the first degree day model related to sandflies in the most important VL foci of Iran. Interpretation & conclusion: Further studies in various regions with variable climate are recommended in order to better estimate and understand the development time, population dynamics and activities of the vectors which in turn could be used in proper implementation of effective vector control programmes.

Browse

Browsing Journal of Vector Borne Diseases by Title

Results Per Page

Sort Options